Information Technology Project Management, 7th Edition Solutions manual and test bank Kathy Schwalbe

Solutions to Accompany

Information Technology

Project Management,

Seventh Edition

ISBN-10: 1133526853 ISBN-13: 978-1133526858

Course Technology MIS Series

Kathy Schwalbe, Ph.D., PMP

Created November 27, 2012

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 2

CHAPTER 2 4

CHAPTER 3 6

CHAPTER 4 7

CHAPTER 5 14

CHAPTER 6 20

CHAPTER 7 25

CHAPTER 8 30

CHAPTER 9 33

CHAPTER 10 36

CHAPTER 11 38

CHAPTER 12 41

CHAPTER 13 43

APPENDIX A 44

APPENDIX B 49

APPENDIX C 50

List of solution files available and referenced in this document, in alphabetical order:

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Project Management

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is there a new or renewed interest in the field of project management?

More and more projects are being done by a variety of organizations. The projects are more complex and often involve the use of new technologies. Organizations are struggling to find better ways to manage their projects.

2. What is a project, and what are its main attributes? How is a project different from what most people do in their day-to-day jobs? What is the triple constraint? What other factors affect a project?

A project is “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result” (PMBOKâ Guide, 2012). In addition to being temporary and unique, other attributes of projects are that they are developed using progressive elaboration, require resources from various areas, should have a primary customer or sponsor, and involve uncertainty. Projects are different from day-to-day activities primarily because they have focused goals and definite beginning and ending dates. The triple constraint is managing scope, time, and cost goals. Other factors that affect a project include quality, risk, human resources, communications, and stakeholders.

3. What is project management? Briefly describe the project management framework, providing examples of stakeholders, knowledge areas, tools and techniques, and project success factors.

Project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to meet project requirements” (PMBOKâ Guide, 2012). The project management framework graphically shows the process of beginning with stakeholders’ needs and expectations, applying the nine project management knowledge areas and various tools and techniques to lead to project success and then enterprise success. For example, if a project were to implement an ERP system for a large company, the stakeholders would include managers and users from many different departments (finance, manufacturing, human resources, IT, etc.), all nine knowledge areas would be important, numerous tools and techniques would be applied (see Table 1-1), and project success might be based on implement key functions by a certain time for a certain cost or having the new system pay for itself within a certain time period.

4. What is a program? What is a project portfolio? Discuss the relationship between projects, programs, and portfolio management and the contributions they each make to enterprise success.

A program is “a group of projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually” (PMBOKâ Guide, 2012) Project portfolio management focuses on managing projects as is as a portfolio of investments that contribute to the entire enterprise’s success. Projects are part of programs which are part of portfolios.

5. What is the role of the project manager? What are suggested skills for all project managers and for IT project managers? Why is leadership so important for project managers? How is the job market for IT project managers?

The project manager is ultimately responsible for project success. Many suggested skills are listed in this chapter, including strong leadership skills, organizational skills, technical skills, and many soft skills. IT project managers require the same skills as general project managers, but they should also know something about the technology used for the project and the types of people who work on information technology projects. Leading by example is the most important trait of effective project managers. The job market for information technology project managers continues to remain strong, especially for those with strong business and leadership skills.

6. Briefly describe some key events in the history of project management. What role does the Project Management Institute and other professional societies play in helping the profession

Some people say that building the Egyptian pyramids or the Great Wall of China were projects, but modern project management began with the Manhattan Project or development of the atomic bomb. That project took about three years and cost almost $2 billion in 1946 and had a separate project manager and technical manager. Gantt charts were first used in 1917, and network diagrams were used in 1958. PMI is the main professional society for project managers, and they run the PMP certification program.

7. What functions can you perform with project management software? What are the main differences between low-end, midrange, and high-end project management tools?

Project management software can assist in developing schedules, communicating information, tracking progress, etc. Popular tools include Microsoft Project 2010, AtTask, and the Microsoft Enterprise Project Management solution, to name a few. Low-end tools are the least expensive, and several are available as apps. Midrange tools can usually create Gantt charts, perform critical path analysis, etc. High-end tools often perform portfolio management and can be used across a large organization.

EXERCISES

Answers to all of these exercises will vary. The main purpose of these exercises is to have students begin doing some independent research to further explore the field of project management. You could have students discuss the results of these exercises in class to enhance participation, assign some for homework, or do both.

CHAPTER 2

The Project Management and Information Technology Context

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What does it mean to take a systems view of a project? How does taking a systems view of a project apply to project management?

Taking a systems view means looking at the big picture of how a particular project fits into the rest of the organization. It is important for project managers to understand the broader organizational environment to ensure their projects meet organizational needs.

2. Explain the four frames of organizations. How can they help project managers understand the organizational context for their projects?

The four frames of organizations are summarized below:

• Structural: deal with how the organization is structures and focus on roles and responsibilities. It’s important to understand these roles and responsibilities when dealing with project stakeholders, especially in procuring resources.
• Human resources: focuses on meeting the needs of the organization and its people. Project managers must understand various human resources policies and procedures.
• Political: addresses organizational and personal politics. Many project managers fail because they do not understand the political environment.
• Symbolic: focuses on symbols and meanings. It’s important to understand an organization’s culture, dress code, work ethic, and so on in managing projects.

3. Briefly explain the differences between functional, matrix, and project organizations. Describe how each structure affects the management of the project.

Functional organizations have managers or vice presidents in specialties such as engineering, manufacturing, information technology, and so on. Their staffs have specialized skills in their respective disciplines. Project organizations have project managers instead of functional managers reporting to the CEO. Matrix organizations represent the middle ground between functional and project structures. Personnel often report to both a functional manager and one or more project managers. Project managers have the most authority in project organizational structures followed by matrix, and then functional.

4. Describe how organizational culture is related to project management. What type of culture promotes a strong project environment?

Organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization. This culture can definitely impact project management. For example, if an organization values project management and follows the guidelines for applying it, it will be much easier to practice good project management. Project work is most successful in an organizational culture where employees identify more with the organization, where work activities emphasize groups, and where there is strong unit integration, high risk tolerance, performance-based rewards, high conflict tolerance, an open-systems focus, and a balanced focus on people, control, and means-orientation.

5. Discuss the importance of top management commitment and the development of standards for successful project management. Provide examples to illustrate the importance of these items based on your experience on any type of project.

Top management commitment is the number one factor associated with the success of information technology projects, so it’s very important to get and maintain this support. Top management can help project managers get adequate resources, approve unique project needs, get cooperation from other parts of the organization, and provide support as a mentor and coach to project managers. Examples will vary.

6. What are the phases in a traditional project life cycle? How does a project life cycle differ from a product life cycle? Why does a project manager need to understand both?

A traditional project life cycle is a collection of project phases¾concept, development, implementation, and close-out. These phases do not vary by project. Product life cycles vary tremendously based on the nature of the project. For example, the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) could follow the waterfall model, spiral model, incremental release model, prototyping model, or RAD model. Using the general phases of the SDLC (information systems planning, analysis, design, implementation, and support) there could be a project to develop a strategic information systems plan; another project to complete a systems analysis for a new system; another project to create a detailed database design; another to install new hardware or software; and another to provide new user training.

7. What makes IT projects different from other types of projects? How should project managers adjust to these differences?

IT projects are different from other types of projects because they can be very diverse in terms of size and complexity, they often include team members with very diverse backgrounds and skills, and he technologies involved are also very diverse. Project managers should adjust to these differences by paying careful attention to the goals of the project and the needs of various stakeholders.

8. Define globalization, outsourcing, virtual teams, and agile project management, and describe how these trends are changing IT project management.

Globalization has created a “flat” world where everyone is connected and the “playing field” is level for many more participants. Outsourcing is when an organization acquires goods and/or sources from an outside source. Agile project management is a method for managing projects when requirements are unclear or change quickly. Virtual teams occur when a group of individuals who work across time and space using communication technologies. Each of these trends has affected the way in which project work is done and how projects need to be managed. It is very rare for a project team to sit in the same work area and work at the same time. Management and coordination is much more complicated.

EXERCISES

Answers to all of these exercises will vary.

Chapter 2: The Project Management and Information Technology Context

TRUE/FALSE

1. Project managers should lead projects in isolation in order to truly serve the needs of the organization.

ANS: F

Even though projects are temporary and intended to provide a unique product or service, you cannot run projects in isolation. If project managers lead projects in isolation, it is unlikely that they will ever truly serve the needs of the organization.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

2. Using a systems approach is critical to successful project management.

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy

REF: p. 45 OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

3. Systems analysis addresses the business, technological, and organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining, and modifying a system.

ANS: F

Systems management addresses the business, technological, and organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining,and modifying a system.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

4. Project managers and their teams must keep in mind the effects of any project on the interests and needs of the entire system or organization instead of focusing on the immediate concerns of the project.

ANS: T

Although it is easier to focus on the immediate and sometimes narrow concerns of a particular project, project managers and other staff must keep in mind the effects of any project on the interests and needs of the entire system or organization.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.46

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

5. When you separate business and organizational issues from project management planning, you do a better job of ensuring project success.

ANS: F

When you integrate business and organizational issues into project management planning and look at projects as a series of interrelated phases, you do a better job of ensuring project success.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.47

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

6. According to the symbolic frame, the most important aspect of any event in an organization is not what actually happened, but what it means.

ANS: T

The symbolic frame focuses on symbols and meanings. In this frame, the most important aspect of any event in an organization is not what actually happened, but what it means.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.48

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

7. Most colleges and universities have very strong functional organizations.

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate

REF: p.49 OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

8. An organization that uses a project organizational structure earns their revenue primarily from performing projects for other groups under contract.

ANS: T

A project organizational structure is hierarchical, but instead of functional managers or vice presidents reporting to the CEO, program managers report to the CEO. Their staffs have a variety of skills needed to complete the projects within their programs. An organization that uses this structure earns its revenue primarily from performing projects for other groups under contract.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

9. Project managers in matrix organizations have staff from various functional areas working on their projects.

ANS: T

Project managers in matrix organizations have staff from various functional areas working on their projects.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p. 50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

10. Most people believe that the underlying causes of many companies’ problems can be traced to its organizational structure.

ANS: F

Organizational culture is very powerful, and many people believe the underlying causes of many companies ’ problems are not in the organizational structure or staff; they are in the culture.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

11. The same organization can have different subcultures.

ANS: T

It is also important to note that the same organization can have different subcultures. The IT department may have a different organizational culture than the finance department, for example.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

12. Project work is most successful in an organizational culture where activities are organized around individuals.

ANS: F

Project work is most successful in organizations in which work activities are organized around

groups or teams, rather than individuals. An organizational culture that emphasizes group work is best for managing projects.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

13. An organizational culture with strong unit integration makes the project manager’s job more difficult.

ANS: F

Most project managers strive for strong unit integration to deliver a successful product, service, or result. An organizational culture with strong unit integration makes the project manager ’s job easier.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p. 51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

LOC: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

14. Internal stakeholders include groups affected by the project such as government officials or concerned citizens.

ANS: F

External project stakeholders include the project ’s customers (if they are external to the organization), competitors, suppliers, and other external groups potentially involved in the project or affected by it, such as government officials or concerned citizens.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

15. Project managers must take adequate time to identify, understand, and manage relationships with all project stakeholders.

ANS: T

Because the purpose of project management is to meet project requirements and satisfy stakeholders, it is critical that project managers take adequate time to identify,understand, and manage relationships with all project stakeholders.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52-53

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

16. The best way to sustain a project is to withhold the required money, human resources, and visibility for the project.

ANS: F

The best way to kill a project is to withhold the required money, human resources, and visibility.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.54

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

17. Project managers must have cooperation from people in other parts of the organization.

ANS: T

Project managers must have cooperation from people in other parts of the organization. If certain functional managers are not responding to project managers’ requests for necessary information, top management must step in to encourage the functional managers to cooperate.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.54

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

18. Standards and guidelines to follow when performing project management must be devised by top management.

ANS: T

The content of a project management plan and instructions for providing status information might seem like common sense to senior managers, but many new IT project managers have never created plans or created a nontechnical status report. Top management must support the development of these standards and guidelines, and encourage or even enforce their use.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.56

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

19. It is much more expensive to make major changes to a project during the earlier phases.

ANS: F

In early phases of a project life cycle, resource needs are usually lowest and the level of uncertainty is highest. It is much more expensive to make major changes to a project during latter phases.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p. 57

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

20. The last phase of the traditional project life cycle is the implementation phase.

ANS: F

The last phase of the traditional project life cycle is the close-out phase.In it, all of the work is completed, and customers should accept the entire project.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.59

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

21. The Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle model assumes that software development follows an adaptive approach because the requirements cannot be clearly expressed early in the life cycle.

ANS: T

The adaptive software development (ASD) life cycle model assumes that software development follows an adaptive approach because the requirements cannot be clearly expressed early in the life cycle.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.61

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

22. An organization usually commits more money as a project continues, therefore a management review should occur after each phase to evaluate progress, potential success, and continued compatibility with organizational goals.

ANS: T

Because the organization usually commits more money as a project continues, a management review should occur after each phase to evaluate progress, potential success, and continued compatibility with organizational goals.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.62

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

23. The nature of hardware development projects is more diverse than software-oriented projects.

ANS: F

The nature of software development projects is even more diverse than hardware-oriented projects. A software development project might include creating a simple, stand-alone Microsoft Excel or Access application, or a sophisticated, global e-commerce system that uses state-of-the-art programming languages and runs on multiple platforms.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.64

OBJ: LO: 2-5 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: The Context of Information Technology Projects KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

24. The team members of a virtual team are all of the same nationality.

ANS: F

A virtual team is a group of people who work together despite time and space boundaries using communication technologies. Team members might all work for the same company in the same country, or they might include employees as well as independent consultants, suppliers, or even volunteers providing their expertise from around the globe.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.67

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

25. Leadership style has no impact on the success of virtual teams.

ANS: F

The project manager’s leadership style affects all teams, especially virtual ones.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.68

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Projects must operate in a broad organizational environment, and project managers need to consider projects within the greater organizational context. _____ describes this holistic view of carrying out projects within the context of the organization.

a.	Linear analysis	c.	Reductionism
b.	Systems thinking	d.	The silo approach

ANS: B

To handle complex situations effectively, project managers need to take a holistic view of a project and understand how it relates to the larger organization. Systems thinking describes this holistic view of carrying out projects within the context of the organization.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

2. _____ refers to a problem-solving approach that requires defining the scope of a system, dividing it into its components, and then identifying and evaluating its problems, opportunities, constraints, and needs.

a.	Linear programming	c.	Principal component analysis
b.	Independent component analysis	d.	Systems analysis

ANS: D

Systems analysis is a problem-solving approach that requires defining the scope of the system, dividing it into components, and then identifying and evaluating its problems, opportunities, constraints, and needs.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

3. The symbolic perspective of an organization:

a.	focuses on different groups’ roles and responsibilities to meet the goals and policies set by top management.	c.	focuses on providing harmony between the needs of the organization and the needs of people.
b.	views the organization as coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest groups.	d.	focuses on the meanings of the culture, language, traditions, and image of the organization.

ANS: D

The symbolic frame focuses on symbols and meanings. In this frame, the most important aspect of any event in an organization is not what actually happened, but what it means.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.46

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

4. The _____ perspective of an organization focuses on different groups’ roles and responsibilities in order to meet the goals and policies set by top management.

a.	structural frame	c.	political frame
b.	human resources frame	d.	symbolic frame

ANS: A

The structural frame deals with how the organization is structured (usually depicted in an organizational chart) and focuses on different groups’ roles and responsibilities to meet the goals and policies set by top management. This frame is very rational and focuses on coordination and control.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.47

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

5. The _____ frame of an organization focuses on providing harmony between the needs of the organization and the needs of people.

a.	structural	c.	political
b.	human resources	d.	symbolic

ANS: B

The human resources (HR) frame focuses on producing harmony between the needs of the organization and the needs of people. It recognizes that mismatches can occur between the needs of the organization and those of individuals and groups, and works to resolve any potential problems.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.47

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Application

6. The _____ perspective on organizations assumes that organizations are coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest groups.

a.	political frame	c.	structural frame
b.	symbolic frame	d.	human resources frame

ANS: A

The political frame addresses organizational and personal politics. Politics in organizations take the form of competition among groups or individuals for power and leadership. The political frame assumes that organizations are coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest groups.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.48

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

7. Grey’s Infotech sells customized hardware and software solutions for businesses. The salespeople for Grey’s have a strict dress code when meeting clients. They are required to wear dark business suits, in order to convey the company’s dedication to quality. The meaning conveyed to the clients’ through the salespeople’s clothing is part of the _____ frame of the organization.

a.	political	c.	structural
b.	symbolic	d.	human resources

ANS: B

The symbolic frame focuses on symbols and meanings. In this frame, the most important aspect of any event in an organization is not what actually happened, but what it means. The symbolic frame also relates to the company’s culture. How do people dress? How many hours do they work?How do they run meetings?

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.48

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Application

8. In Rizzati Corp, vice presidents in departments such as engineering, manufacturing, IT, and human resources report directly to the chief executive officer and undertake their tasks independently of each other. The staffs of these departments have specialized skills in their respective disciplines.Rizatti Corp can be said to have a _____ organizational structure.

a.	project	c.	matrix
b.	symbolic	d.	functional

ANS: D

A functional organizational structure is the hierarchy most people think of when picturing an organizational chart. Functional managers or vice presidents in specialties such as engineering, manufacturing, IT, and human resources report to the chief executive officer (CEO).

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.49

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Application

9. In a _____organizational structure, program managers, rather than functional managers or vice presidents, report to the CEO. Their staffs have a variety of skills needed to complete all required tasks within their programs.

a.	project	c.	matrix
b.	symbolic	d.	functional

ANS: A

A project organizational structure also is hierarchical, but instead of functional managers or vice presidents reporting to the CEO, program managers report to the CEO.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

10. In a _____ organizational structure, personnel often report to both a functional manager and one or more project managers.

a.	project	c.	matrix
b.	symbolic	d.	functional

ANS: C

A matrix organizational structure represents the middle ground between functional and project structures. Personnel often report both to a functional manager and one or more project managers.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

11. Project managers have the most authority in a pure _____ organizational structure.

a.	functional	c.	matrix
b.	project	d.	circular

ANS: B

Project managers have the most authority in a pure project organizational structure and the least amount of authority in a pure functional organizational structure.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

12. Project managers have the least amount of authority in a pure _____ organizational structure.

a.	functional	c.	matrix
b.	project	d.	circular

ANS: A

Project managers have the most authority in a pure project organizational structure and the least amount of authority in a pure functional organizational structure.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: P.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

13. Which of the following is true of a matrix organizational structure?

a.	In a matrix organizational structure, employees are organized into departments according to their skills, and there is little interaction between employees from different departments.	c.	In a strong matrix organizational structure, the project manager controls the project budget and has moderate to high authority.
b.	Project managers in matrix organizations have staff from only a single functional area working on their projects.	d.	A matrix organizational structure is hierarchical, but instead of functional managers reporting to the CEO, program managers report to the CEO.

ANS: C

In a strong matrix organizational structure, the project manager controls the project budget and has moderate to high authority.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

14. _____ refers to a set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization.

a.	Chain of command	c.	Organizational culture
b.	Line of control	d.	Organizational structure

ANS: C

Organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization. It often includes elements of the four frames.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

15. The _____ characteristic of organizational culture describes the degree to which management’s decisions take into account the effect of outcomes on people within the organization.

a.	member identity	c.	people focus
b.	group emphasis	d.	unit integration

ANS: C

The people focus characteristic of organizational culture describes the degree to which management’s decisions take into account the effect of outcomes on people within the organization.Good project managers often balance the needs of individuals and the organization.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

16. _____ refers to the degree to employees identify with the organization as a whole, rather than with their types of job or profession.

a.	Member identity	c.	Group emphasis
b.	People focus	d.	Unit integration

ANS: A

Member identity refers to the degree to employees identify with the organization as a whole, rather than with their types of job or profession.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

17. _____refers to the degree to which departments within an organization are encouraged to coordinate with each other.

a.	Member identity	c.	Group emphasis
b.	People focus	d.	Unit integration

ANS: D

Unit integration refers to the degree to which units or departments within an organization are encouraged to coordinate with each other.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

18. In organizational culture, people focus refers to _____.

a.	the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment	c.	the degree to which management ’s decisions take into account the effect of outcomes on employees within the organization
b.	the degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee and control employee behavior	d.	the degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative, and risk seeking

ANS: C

People focus refers to the degree to which management’s decisions take into account the effect of outcomes on people within the organization.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.51

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

19. In organizational culture, means-end orientation refers to _____.

a.	the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment	c.	the degree to which management focuses on outcomes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve results
b.	the degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee and control employee behavior	d.	the degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative, and risk seeking

ANS: C

Means-ends orientation refers to the degree to which management focuses on outcomes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve results.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

20. _____ refers to the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment.

a.	Means-ends orientation	c.	Conflict tolerance
b.	Open-systems focus	d.	Risk tolerance

ANS: B

Open-systems focus refers to the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

21. In organizational culture, control refers to _____.

a.	the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment	c.	the degree to which management focuses on outcomes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve results
b.	the degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee employee behavior	d.	the degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative, and risk seeking

ANS: B

Control refers to the degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee and control employee behavior.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

22. _____ are an example of external stakeholders for an organization.

a.	Top managers	c.	Employees
b.	Functional managers	d.	Competitors

ANS: D

External project stakeholders include the project ’s customers (if they are external to the organization), competitors, suppliers, and other external groups potentially involved in the project or affected by it, such as government officials or concerned citizens.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

23. A(n) _____ refers to a product or service, such as a technical report, a training session, a piece of hardware, or a segment of software code, produced or provided as part of a project.

a.	deliverable	c.	system
b.	input	d.	resource

ANS: A

A deliverable is a product or service, such as a technical report, a training session, a piece of hardware, or a segment of software code, produced or provided as part of a project.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.56

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

24. Which of the following is true of the project life cycle?

a.	In the early phases of a project life cycle, resource needs are usually lowest.	c.	It is much more expensive to make major changes to a project during the earlier phases than the latter phases.
b.	In the later phases of the project life cycle, the level of uncertainty is usually the highest.	d.	More resources are usually needed during the initial phases of a project than during the middle or final phases.

ANS: A

In the early phases of a project life cycle, resource needs are usually lowest and the level of uncertainty is highest.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.57

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

25. The first two traditional project phases (concept and development) focus on planning, and are often referred to as _____.

a.	project feasibility	c.	project implementation
b.	project acquisition	d.	project close-out

ANS: A

The first two traditional project phases (concept and development) focus on planning, and are often referred to as project feasibility.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.57

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

26. A preliminary or rough cost estimate is developed in the _____ phase of the project life cycle, and an overview of the work involved is created.

a.	implementation	c.	concept
b.	acquisition	d.	close-out

ANS: C

In the concept phase of a project, managers usually develop some type of business case, which describes the need for the project and basic underlying concepts. A preliminary or rough cost estimate is developed in this first phase, and an overview of the required work is created.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.57

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

27. In the development phase of the project life cycle:

a.	the project team creates more detailed project plans, a more accurate cost estimate, and a more thorough WBS.	c.	managers develop a business case, which describes the need for the project and basic underlying concepts.
b.	the project team delivers the required work, and provides performance reports to stakeholders.	d.	managers prepare a preliminary or rough cost estimate for the required work.

ANS: A

In the development phase, the project team creates more detailed project management plans, a more accurate cost estimate, and a more thorough WBS.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.58

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

28. In the _____ phase, the project team creates a definitive or very accurate cost estimate, delivers the required work, and provides performance reports to stakeholders.

a.	development	c.	concept
b.	implementation	d.	close-out

ANS: B

The third phase of the traditional project life cycle is implementation. In this phase, the project team creates a definitive or very accurate cost estimate, delivers the required work, and provides performance reports to stakeholders.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 58

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

29. The _____ model of a systems development life cycle assumes that requirements will remain stable after they are defined.

a.	spiral life cycle	c.	incremental build life cycle
b.	waterfall life cycle	d.	RAD life cycle

ANS: B

The waterfall life cycle model has well-defined, linear stages of systems analysis, design, construction, testing, and support. This life cycle model assumes that requirements will remain stable after they are defined.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.60

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

30. The _____ model of a systems development life cycle provides for progressive development of operational software, with each release providing added capabilities.

a.	spiral life cycle	c.	waterfall life cycle
b.	RAD life cycle	d.	incremental build life cycle

ANS: D

The incremental build life cycle model provides for progressive development of operational software, with each release providing added capabilities.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.60

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

31. In the _____ model, developers use a model to generate functional requirements and physical design specifications simultaneously.

a.	RAD life cycle	c.	spiral life cycle
b.	prototyping life cycle	d.	incremental build life cycle

ANS: B

The prototyping life cycle model is used for developing software prototypes to clarify user requirements for operational software. It requires heavy user involvement, and developers use a model to generate functional requirements and physical design specifications simultaneously. This approach is often used in systems that involve a great deal of user interface design, such

as website projects.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.61

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

32. The _____ model uses an approach in which developers work with an evolving prototype, using tools such as computer-aided software engineering, joint requirements planning, and joint application design to facilitate rapid prototyping and code generation.

a.	incremental build life cycle	c.	RAD life cycle
b.	waterfall life cycle	d.	spiral life cycle

ANS: C

The RAD life cycle model uses an approach in which developers work with an evolving prototype. This life cycle model also requires heavy user involvement and helps produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.61

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

33. Which of the following best describes a kill point in the project life cycle?

a.	The period of time given to managers during the feasibility phases to decide on the cost, quality, and time constraints for the project	c.	The point of time in the project lifecycle after which it is impossible to terminate a running project
b.	A review of the status of a project at each phase of development to determine if it should be continued, redirected, or terminated	d.	The final submission of the project deliverables after which the project is terminated

ANS: B

A management review should occur after each phase to evaluate progress, potential success, and continued compatibility with organizational goals.These management reviews, called phase exits or kill points, are very important for keeping projects on track and determining if they should be continued, redirected, or terminated.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.62

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

34. Which of the following is a disadvantage of virtual teams as compared to traditional teams?

a.	Increased costs for office space and support	c.	Limited flexibility in team working hours
b.	Reduced opportunities for informal transfer of information	d.	Reduced dependence on technology and processes for accomplishing work

ANS: B

Virtual teams reduce the ability of team members to network and transfer information informally.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 67

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

35. Which of the following best describes outsourcing?

a.	An organization selling its products in a market outside its domestic market	c.	An organization setting up manufacturing and retailing facilities in a new country
b.	An organization’s acquisition of goods and services from an outside source	d.	An organization’s use of virtual teams with employees located in different countries

ANS: B

Outsourcing is an organization’s acquisition of goods and services from an outside source. The term offshoring is sometimes used to describe outsourcing from another country.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 66

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

36. Which of the following is true of virtual teams?

a.	It is easier for a virtual team to build relationships and trust.	c.	It is important to select team members carefully.
b.	Negative incentives do not impact virtual team members.	d.	As they never meet, virtual teams do not have conflicts.

ANS: C

It is important to select team members carefully and to form a team in which all roles are covered. All virtual team members must also understand their roles on the team.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p. 68

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

37. Which of the following is true of the agile approach to software development?

a.	In the agile method, requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration.	c.	Agile is a predictive model of software development.
b.	An agile approach sets scope goals, but leaves time and cost goals flexible.	d.	In the agile approach, requirements must be clearly expressed early in the life cycle.

ANS: A

Agile means using a method based on iterative and incremental development, in which requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 69

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

COMPLETION

1. A(n) _____ is an overall model for thinking about things as sets of interacting components working within an environment to fulfill some purpose.

ANS: systems philosophy

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

2. _____ are sets of interacting components working within an environment to fulfill some purpose.

ANS: Systems

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

3. _____ addresses the business, technological, and organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining, and making a change to a system.

ANS: Systems management

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

4. The three spheres of systems management are business, organization, and _____.

ANS: technology

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.46

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

5. The _____ frame of the organization is the one that is usually depicted in an organizational chart.

ANS: structural

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.47

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

6. The _____ frame of an organization relates to the company’s culture.

ANS: symbolic

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.48

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

7. Three general classifications of organizational structures are _____, project, and matrix.

ANS: functional

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p. 49

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

8. In a(n) _____ organizational structure, project managers have little or no authority.

ANS: functional

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.50

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

9. _____ refers to the degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee employee behavior.

ANS: Control

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

10. _____ refers to the degree to which work activities are organized around teams, rather than individuals.

ANS: Group emphasis

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.52

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

11. Some projects have a senior manager called a(n)_____ who acts as a key proponent for a project.

ANS: champion

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.54

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

12. A major element of good practice concerns _____ , which addresses the authority and control for key IT activities in organizations, including IT infrastructure, IT use, and project management.

ANS: IT governance

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.55

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

13. A(n) _____ refers to a product or service, such as a report, a training session, a piece of hardware, or a segment of software code, produced or provided as part of a project.

ANS: deliverable

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.56

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

14. In the _____ phase of the project life cycle, the work is completed, and customers should accept the entire project.

ANS: close-out

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.59

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

15. A(n) _____ is a framework for describing the phases involved in developing information systems.

ANS:

SDLC

systems development life cycle

systems development life cycle (SDLC)

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.59

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

16. _____ life cycle models of systems development assume that the scope of the project can be articulated clearly and the schedule and cost can be predicted accurately.

ANS: Predictive

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.60

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

17. The term _____ describes new approaches that focus on close collaboration between programming teams and business experts.

ANS: agile software development

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 61

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

18. _____ is an organization’s acquisition of goods and services from an outside source. .

ANS: Outsourcing

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy REF: p.61

OBJ: LO: 2-6 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Recent Trends Affecting Information Technology Project Management

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

ESSAY

1. Describe the concept of a systems approach.

ANS:

The term systems approach emerged in the 1950s to describe a holistic and analytical approach to solving complex problems that includes using a systems philosophy, systems analysis, and systems management. A systems philosophy is an overall model for thinking about things as systems. Systems are sets of interacting components working within an environment to fulfill some purpose. For example, the human body is a system composed of many subsystems—the nervous system, the skeletal system, the circulatory system, the digestive system, and so on. Systems analysis is a problem-solving approach that requires defining the scope of the system, dividing it into its components, and then identifying and evaluating its problems, opportunities, constraints, and needs. Once this is completed, the systems analyst then examines alternative solutions for improving the current situation, identifies an optimum, or at least satisfactory, solution or action plan, and examines that plan against the entire system. Systems management addresses the business, technological, and organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining, and modifying a system.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.45

OBJ: LO: 2-1 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: A Systems View of Project Management KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

2. What are the four frames of organizations? Describe each frame.

ANS:

The structural frame deals with how the organization is structured (usually depicted in an organizational chart) and focuses on different groups’ roles and responsibilities in order to meet the goals and policies set by top management. This frame is very rational and focuses on coordination and control. For example, within the structural frame, a key information technology issue is whether a company should centralize the information technology personnel in one department or decentralize across several departments.

The human resources frame focuses on producing harmony between the needs of the organization and the needs of the people. It recognizes that there are often mismatches between the needs of the organization and the needs of individuals and groups and works to resolve any potential problems. For example, many projects might be more efficient for the organization if personnel worked 80 or more hours a week for several months. This work schedule would probably conflict with the personal lives of those people. Important issues in information technology related to the human resources frame are the shortage of skilled information technology workers within the organization and unrealistic schedules imposed on many projects.

The political frame addresses organizational and personal politics. Politics in organizations take the form of competition among groups or individuals for power and leadership. The political frame assumes that organizations are coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest groups. Often, important decisions need to be made based on the allocation of scarce resources. Competition for scarce resources makes conflict a central issue in organizations, and power improves the ability to obtain scarce resources. Project managers must pay attention to politics and power if they are to be effective. It is important to know who opposes your projects as well as who supports them. Important issues in information technology related to the political frame are the power shifts from central functions to operating units or from functional managers to project managers.

The symbolic frame focuses on symbols and meanings. What is most important about any event in an organization is not what actually happened, but what it means. Was it a good sign that the CEO came to a kickoff meeting for a project, or was it a threat? The symbolic frame also relates to the company’s culture. How do people dress? How many hours do they work? How do they run meetings? Many information technology projects are international and include stakeholders from various cultures. Understanding those cultures is also a crucial part of the symbolic frame.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.47-48

OBJ: LO: 2-2 NAT: BUSPROG: Technology

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

3. Describe each of the three major types of organizational structure.

ANS:

A functional organizational structure is the hierarchy most people think of when picturing an organizational chart. Functional managers or vice presidents in specialties such as engineering, manufacturing, information technology (IT), and human resources (HR) report to the chief executive officer (CEO). Their staffs have specialized skills in their respective disciplines. For example, most colleges and universities have very strong functional organizations. Only faculty in the Business department teach business courses; faculty in the History department teach history; faculty in the Art department teach art, and so on.

A project organizational structure also has a hierarchical structure, but instead of functional managers or vice presidents reporting to the CEO, program managers report to the CEO. Their staffs have a variety of skills needed to complete the projects within their programs. An organization that uses this structure earns their revenue primarily from performing projects for other groups under contract. For example, many defense, architectural, engineering, and consulting companies use a project organizational structure. These companies often hire people specifically to work on particular projects.

A matrix organizational structure represents the middle ground between functional and project structures. Personnel often report to both a functional manager and one or more project managers. For example, information technology personnel at many companies often split their time between two or more projects, but they report to their manager in the Information Technology department. Project managers in matrix organizations have staff from various functional areas working on their projects. Matrix organizational structures can be strong, weak, or balanced, based on the amount of control exerted by the project managers.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p.49-51

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Understanding Organizations KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

4. Why is top management commitment crucial for project managers?

ANS:

Project managers need adequate resources. The best way to kill a project is to withhold the required money, human resources, and visibility for the project. If project managers have top management commitment, they will also have adequate resources and not be distracted by events that do not affect their specific projects.

Project managers often require approval for unique project needs in a timely manner. For example, on large information technology projects, top management must understand that unexpected problems may result from the nature of the products being produced and the specific skills of the people on the project team. For example, the team might need additional hardware and software halfway through the project for proper testing, or the project manager might need to offer special pay and benefits to attract and retain key project personnel. With top management commitment, project managers can meet these specific needs in a timely manner.

Project managers must have cooperation from people in other parts of the organization. Since most information technology projects cut across functional areas, top management must help project managers deal with the political issues that often arise in these types of situations. If certain functional managers are not responding to project managers’ requests for necessary information, top management must step in to encourage functional managers to cooperate.

Project managers often need someone to mentor and coach them on leadership issues. Many information technology project managers come from technical positions and are inexperienced as managers. Senior managers should take the time to pass on advice on how to be good leaders. They should encourage new project managers to take classes to develop leadership skills and allocate the time and funds for them to do so.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 54-55

OBJ: LO: 2-3 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Stakeholder Management

KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

5. What is a systems development life cycle? What are some of the predictive models associated with the systems development life cycle?

ANS:

A systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a framework for describing the phases involved in developing information systems. Some popular models of a systems development life cycle include the waterfall model, the spiral model, the incremental build model, the prototyping model, and the Rapid Application Development (RAD) model. These life cycle models are examples of a predictive life cycle, meaning that the scope of the project can be clearly articulated and the schedule and cost can be accurately predicted. The project team spends a large portion of the project effort attempting to clarify the requirements of the entire system and then producing a design. Users are often unable to see any tangible results in terms of working software for an extended period. Below are brief descriptions of several predictive SDLC models:

The waterfall life cycle model has well-defined, linear stages of systems development and support. This life cycle model assumes that requirements will remain stable after they are defined.

The spiral life cycle model was developed based on experience with various refinements of the waterfall model as applied to large government software projects. It recognizes the fact that most software is developed using an iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear approach.

The incremental build life cycle model provides for progressive development of operational software, with each release providing added capabilities.

The prototyping life cycle model is used for developing software prototypes to clarify user requirements for operational software. It requires heavy user involvement, and developers use a model to generate functional requirements and physical design specifications simultaneously. Developers can throw away or keep prototypes, depending on the project.

The Rapid Application Development (RAD) life cycle model uses an approach in which developers work with an evolving prototype. This life cycle model also requires heavy user involvement and helps produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality. Developers use RAD tools such as CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering), JRP (Joint Requirements Planning), and JAD (Joint Application Design) to facilitate rapid prototyping and code generation.

PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate REF: p. 60-61

OBJ: LO: 2-4 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic

TOP: Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge