Economics and Contemporary Issues, 9th Edition Solutions manual and test bank William McLean | Michael Applegate

Economics and Contemporary Issues, 9th Edition Solutions manual and test bank William McLean | Michael Applegate

Chapter 2

An Introduction to Economic Systems and

The Workings of the Price System

What's in This Chapter and Why

Chapter 2 compares a market system to a planned system in the context of the collapse of the centrally-planned economies and their efforts to build a new economic system. Market economies are recognized as being superior in terms of production, distribution, and coordination.

The chapter introduces the market system as a coordinating mechanism for the economy. Two fundamental questions are discussed: What are the essential characteristics of a market economy, and why do they perform better than command systems? Specialization and the division of labor are examined, and it is shown, that together with comparative advantage, productivity and output can increase. Allowing for specialization increases the importance of coordinating the activities of thousands of firms and millions of people. Demand and supply analysis is introduced and shows how markets solve the coordination problem.

The importance of price is developed showing how the price system coordinates by providing information, motivation, and rationing. The coordination that naturally occurs in a market economy is compared to coordination in a command economy and in a market with price ceilings.

The chapter concludes with a discussion of some experiences of the transition economies. The idea is to convince students that choice of economic systems is important and relevant.

Instructional Objectives

After completing this chapter, your students should know:

1. The questions that an economic system must answer, the essential elements of a market economy, and the importance of coordination.

2. The meaning and importance of the division and specialization of labor and how specialization makes coordination more important.

3. The benefits of trade and comparative advantage.

4. The laws of demand and supply, the meaning of demand and supply prices, and how the laws of demand and supply interact to lead to market equilibrium.

4. The attributes of a price system--informing, motivating, and rationing--that allow it to coordinate.

5. The relative success of a market economy's price system, a command economy's planning system, and a price-controlled economy in achieving coordination.

Key Terms

These terms are introduced in this chapter:

Relative price

Absolute advantage

Comparative advantage

Quantity demanded

Demand curve

Demand price

Law of demand

Quantity supplied

Supply curve

Supply price

Law of supply

Excess demand

Excess supply

Equilibrium

Scarcity

Ration

Economic profit

Suggestions for Teaching

This chapter introduces the idea of economic systems and how they coordinate the activities of specialized economic agents. To cover it thoroughly will require three or four class sections.

To begin, it is important to develop students’ understanding of property rights; they are the key to efficient market exchange and incentives. Discuss with students how they treat things they own versus rent and the incentives of each.

Students are accustomed to thinking about markets in terms of the price paid for goods and services. Introduce them to the economists’ ideas about price. Understanding relative prices will help students grasp the concept of opportunity cost. Also discuss the idea that price is a signal to producers and consumers, hence it helps coordinate markets.

Notice that the book does not provide a separate chapter or appendix on graphing. Instead, the first couple of chapters develop arithmetic examples and show how to graph the relevant schedules. Next, the demand and supply curves are presented with assumed numerical prices and quantities without the underlying tables. Finally, more abstract demand and supply curves are used alone. This allows students to move naturally to graphical analysis and to appreciate the simplification that it allows.

The collapse of the centrally-planned economies and the varying success that transition economies have experienced are defining events. Their importance cannot be overemphasized. Students quickly grasp this and are intrigued by it.

Additional References

In addition to the references in the text, instructors may wish to read or assign one or more of the following:

1. Olivier J. Blanchard, Kenneth A. Froot, and Jeffrey D. Sachs, eds., The Transition in Eastern Europe, National Bureau of Economic Research (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).

2. Morris Bornstein, Comparative Economic Systems: Models and Cases, 7th ed. (Irwin: Boston, 1994).

3. Business Week, "21st Century Capitalism," Special Issue, 1994.

4. Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, Soviet and Post-Soviet Economic Structure and Performance, 5th ed., (Harper Collins: New York, 1994).

Outline

I. MARKET ECONOMIC SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTORY LOOK

A. Essential Features of a Market System

1. There are three essential features of a market system: private ownership, market exchanges, and market incentives.

B. Relative Price: The price of one good in terms of another good.

1. Relative price measures what must be given up to purchase an item; the opportunity cost.

2. Relative price is the exchange value of a good.

3. In order for relative prices to provide information about exchange value to consumers, reasonable price stability is necessary.

C. Private Property Rights and Laws

1. In order for a market system to function well, private property rights must be defined, established, and protected by law.

a. Private property rights allow individuals to base their decisions on their own self interest.

b. Property owners realize the opportunity cost of their actions, hence realize the desires of others.

2. A legal system must exist to include property, contract, criminal, tort, and other laws.

3. Law enforcement must exist to enforce the laws.

D. Characteristics of a Successful Market System

1. Private ownership; a system of defined and established ownership rights that are protected by law.

2. Market exchange; flexible prices that fluctuate in response to individuals’ voluntary decisions.

3. Market incentives; price system with rewards and penalties that motivate decision makers.

4. Stable prices and a well-functioning monetary system.

5. A culture of climate and trust.

II. WHAT DOES AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM DO? IT COORDINATES

A. Economic Outcomes Determined by an Economic System

1. The methods of production.

2. The quantities of various goods and services produced in an economy.

3. The distribution of goods and services.

4. The stability of the economy and whether it produces at its capacity.

5. The growth of the economy is determined.

B. The Division and Specialization of Labor

1. Division of labor implies specialization of economic activity.

2. Division and specialization of labor results in greater levels of output:

a. It allows people to become highly skilled in particular tasks.

b. It reduces the time wasted as people shift from one task to another.

c. It can result in greater inventions and innovations as specialized workers see easier ways to perform tasks.

3. Division of labor can result in overspecialization.

a. Worker discontent can ensue because workers may perform monotonous tasks.

C. Comparative Advantage and Specialization

1. Absolute advantage: the ability to produce more than another individual with a given set of resources.

2. Comparative advantage: the ability to produce at a lower opportunity cost than another individual.

3. Total output can increase by specializing according to comparative advantage and allowing for trade.

D. Economic Coordination and the Market System

1. Coordination of economic activity in a market system relies on voluntary exchange.

2. Voluntary exchange occurs when all parties to the exchange expect to benefit.

3. There are several conditions that must hold if trade is to be voluntary.

a. Both parties must be responsible individuals who can make rational decisions.

b. Both parties must have reasonable access to information.

c. Both parties must have reasonable alternatives to the exchange.

4. The beneficial effects of voluntary exchange may disappear if there is an adverse external cost, or neighborhood effect, associated with the exchange.

a. An adverse neighborhood effect arises when a third party is negatively and involuntarily affected by the exchange.

III. The Price System as Coordinator

A. In competitive markets, the interaction of demand and supply determines the quantity of a good produced.

1. Competitive markets are markets with many buyers and sellers.

B. Demand: The law of demand says that quantity demanded is negatively related to price.

1. A demand schedule shows the quantity of a good that people are willing to purchase in some given time period at alternative prices.

a. If any of the nonprice determinants of demand change, the demand schedule will change.

b. A demand curve is a visual depiction of the demand schedule.

i. The demand curve shows the quantity of a good that will be demanded in some given time period at alternative prices.

2. Quantity demanded is the quantity of a good that consumers are willing to buy at each possible price, holding other factors that affect demand constant.

3. The demand price is the price at which a specific quantity will clear the market, the marginal benefit.

C. Supply: The law of supply says that quantity supplied is positively related to price.

1. A supply schedule shows the quantity of a good that producers are willing to supply in a given time period at alternative prices.

a. If any of the nonprice determinants of supply change, the supply schedule will change.

b. A supply curve is a visual depiction of the supply schedule.

i. The supply curve shows the quantity of a good that will be supplied in some given time period at alternative prices.

2. Quantity supplied is the quantity of a good that producers will sell at each possible price, holding constant other factors that affect supply.

3. The supply price is the price that is sufficient to get producers to supply a specific quantity, the marginal cost.

D. Putting the Pieces Together: Demand and Supply

1. In a market economic system, the decisions about what to buy and sell are coordinated through the laws of supply and demand, with no central direction.

2. Equilibrium occurs in the market when quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal - where the demand and supply curves intersect.

a. Equilibrium refers to a situation that will continue indefinitely unless some outside force affecting the situation changes.

b. If price is below the equilibrium price, there will be excess demand in the market.

i. Excess demand is a situation in which quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied.

ii. Excess demand puts an upward pressure on prices, which moves the market towards equilibrium.

c. If price is above the equilibrium price there will be excess supply in the market.

i. Excess supply is a situation in which quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded.

ii. Excess supply puts a downward pressure on prices, which moves the market towards equilibrium.

IV. COMPARATIVE SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTORY SKETCH

A. The Price System

1. In a command economy, government plans what and how to produce.

2. In a market economy, individuals plan.

3. In a market economy, consumers attempt to maximize satisfaction and producers attempt to maximize profits.

a. Both consumers and producers are price takers.

b. Both consumers and producers base their plans on the prices of goods and services.

B. Information, Rationing, and Motivation in a Market Economy

1. The price system informs economic actors about underlying changes in the economy, motivates these actors to adjust to those changes, and provides incentives for economic actors to conserve and adjust production levels.

2. An increase in demand will have several effects upon the economy.

a. As demand increases, there will be an increase in price.

b. The increase in price tells consumers that the good is more costly, and consumers will ration consumption or reduce the quantity of the good they demand.

c. The increase in price will cause the profits of producers to go up, motivating them to produce a greater quantity of the good.

d. As producers increase production, price will begin to fall, motivating consumers to purchase greater quantities of the good.

e. The distinction between scarcity and excess demand is important.

i. Scarcity is an economic condition in which our wants exceed our ability to satisfy them.

ii. Excess demand means that at the market price the amount consumers want to buy exceeds the amount that producers want to supply.

iii. Excess demand will be eliminated as price adjusts to a new higher level and rations the good to those willing to pay the new, higher price.

C. Information, Rationing, and Motivation in a Command Economy

1. In a command economy, the price system does not provide producers and consumers with accurate and timely information about underlying changes in the market.

2. Because of both the political and monetary cost, price changes are infrequent in a command economy.

3. Since price changes are infrequent, there is no signal for producers and consumers to change their behavior and excess supply and demand do not disappear.

4. Even if prices were allowed to change, this would probably not motivate producers to increase (decrease) the quantity supplied because they would not reap the profits (losses) associated with higher (lower) prices.

D. Systems and Coordination

1. A market system provides goods to people based on their willingness to pay.

2. Command economies are much less successful in coordinating demand and supply.

a. This system does not have the ability to automatically and inexpensively collect information about consumer preferences and production capabilities.

b. This system does not have the capability to automatically and inexpensively provide incentives and motivation for people to make wealth-promoting decisions.

3. A market system fosters the division of labor that is responsible for increasing the 'wealth of nations.'

Answers to Review Questions

1. What are five characteristics of a successful market economy? Explain.

In order to function well, a market economy must have a well-functioning monetary system, a well-defined system of private property rights, market incentives, flexible prices, and a legal system that is broadly obeyed. In order for a market system to function well, individuals must be willing and able to trust other individuals with whom they deal. The establishment of clear and understandable property rights is a step in this direction. Given property rights, individuals decide what to produce and consume based on their self-interest. They make career and production decisions considering their interests, opportunities, and talents, and in light of what other people will pay for their labor or products. If however, the legal system is not broadly obeyed, the outcomes of decisions and agreements become unpredictable. Failure to follow contracts, for example, has become a major problem in Russia.

Allowing individuals to purchase from others rather than directly exchanging what they produce facilitates exchange. Prices provide information that simplifies exchange between individuals. They inform and motivate people in their economic decision-making. Prices inform by letting individuals know what must be sacrificed when a purchase is made. Prices give producers information about the relative value consumers place on their products. When an economy fails to have a well functioning monetary framework, problems such as inflation and barter activity may be the result.

Market incentives are important to the functioning of the market system. Households base decisions on the desire to maximize utility. The desire to maximize profits directs firms as they decide what goods to produce and how to produce them. Resources are allocated to their highest valued use. The goods consumers desire are produced at the lowest possible cost.

2. Why is average price stability important in a market system?

In order to understand the importance of price stability, we must first understand the concept of relative prices. A relative price is the price of one good in terms of another good. It measures what must be given up to purchase an item. If prices do not change much over time, people become aware of prices as exchange values. This simplifies decision making because people know what they are sacrificing to get a good.

On the other hand, if the average of all prices is increasing rapidly over time, prices provide less information about exchange value. For example, if inflation is variable, people can no longer rely on experience to judge exchange values. As the variable inflation continues, people will have to reevaluate alternatives each time they plan a new purchase.

3. What are the three basic questions that an economic system must answer?

An economic system must answer three basic questions: 1) What quantities of various goods and services will be produced in an economy? A successful economic system must provide answers that satisfy a large part of the population. 2) How will the goods and services be produced? There are different methods by which goods and services can be produced. An economic system must determine which methods will be used. 3) For whom will the goods and services be produced? This is a difficult question to answer. On the one hand, people must be rewarded for their production so there is an incentive to increase production. On the other hand, compassion or justice requires that those who cannot produce an adequate amount be taken care of in some way.

4. Why is the division of labor important? Why does increased division of labor make the coordination problem more difficult?

Division of labor is important because it allows an economic system to produce a greater quantity and variety of goods and services at a lower cost. This occurs for three basic reasons. First, the division of labor allows people to become highly skilled in particular tasks. Second, it reduces time that is wasted as people shift from one task to another. By reserving large blocks of time for each task, people avoid losing time because of mental shifting of gears, putting materials away, getting out new materials, etc. Third, the division of labor results in inventions and innovations.

Increased division of labor makes the coordination task more difficult because greater specialization means that more and more goods are exchanged rather than self-produced. If I, along with everyone else, prepare all of my own meals, there is no or little possibility of there being an excess demand or excess supply of meals. If many, or all, meals are purchased from specialized restaurants, there can easily be an excess supply (or excess capacity) of fast-food.

5. Define comparative advantage. Suppose Hugh can produce either four short stories per week or eight gallons of orange juice and Liz can produce either four short stories per week or four gallons of orange juice. At this time Hugh is producing four gallons of orange juice and two short stories per week and Liz is producing two short stories and two gallons of orange juice.

a. Who has an absolute advantage in producing short stories? In orange juice?

Comparative advantage is the ability to produce at a lower opportunity cost than someone else.

a. Both parties can produce the same number of short stories per week, hence neither has the absolute advantage. The absolute advantage is the ability to produce more than someone else with a given set of resources. Hugh has the absolute advantage in producing orange juice because he can produce more than Liz.